Table 1 Participant characteristics by categories of total coffee consumption (n = 1005^a)

n (%)

214 (21.3)

195 (19.4)

377 (37.5)

170 (16.9)

49 (4.9)

-

Age (years)

54 (47–62)

54 (47–62)

55 (48–63)

54 (48–60)

54 (46–61)

0.45

Sex, n (%)

0.07

Males

81 (37.9)

82 (42.1)

164 (43.5)

87 (51.2)

26 (53.1)

Females

133 (62.2)

113 (57.9)

213 (56.5)

83 (48.8)

23 (46.9)

Ethnicity, n (%)

<0.0001

Non-Hispanic white

99 (46.3)

61 (31.3)

136 (36.1)

83 (48.8)

28 (57.1)

Hispanic

48 (22.4)

45 (23.1)

169 (44.8)

65 (38.2)

17 (34.7)

African American

67 (31.3)

89 (45.6)

72 (19.1)

22 (12.9)

4 (8.2)

Glucose tolerance status, n (%)

0.0215

Normal glucose tolerance

141 (65.9)

121 (62.1)

264 (70.0)

113 (66.5)

42 (85.7)

Impaired glucose tolerance

73 (34.1)

74 (37.9)

113 (30.0)

57 (33.5)

7 (14.3)

Highest education level completed, n (%)

0.0003

≤ Elementary

6 (2.8)

16 (8.2)

36 (9.6)

14 (8.2)

4 (8.2)

≤ High school

61 (28.5)

48 (24.6)

151 (40.1)

45 (26.5)

16 (32.7)

≤ College

114 (53.3)

92 (47.2)

137 (36.3)

76 (44.7)

22 (44.9)

≤ Graduate school

33 (15.4)

39 (20.0)

53 (14.1)

35 (20.6)

7 (14.3)

Smoking status, n (%)

<0.0001

Never

130 (60.8)

91 (46.7)

169 (44.8)

56 (32.9)

7 (14.3)

Past

62 (29.0)

75 (38.5)

138 (36.6)

87 (51.2)

21 (42.9)

Current

22 (10.3)

29 (14.9)

70 (18.6)

27 (15.9)

21 (42.9)

Alcohol intake category, n (%)

<0.0001

Never drank

43 (20.1)

13 (6.7)

43 (11.4)

5 (3.0)

2 (4.1)

Ex-drinker

47 (22.0)

23 (11.8)

46 (12.2)

24 (14.2)

6 (12.2)

Very little

38 (17.8)

35 (18.0)

63 (16.8)

24 (14.2)

10 (20.4)

<0.5 drinks/day

45 (21.0)

70 (35.9)

120 (31.9)

54 (32.0)

15 (30.6)

0.5 to <1 drinks/day

15 (7.0)

23 (11.8)

39 (10.4)

20 (11.8)

4 (8.2)

1 to <3 drinks/day

20 (9.4)

27 (13.9)

51 (13.6)

32 (18.9)

9 (18.4)

≥3 drinks/day

6 (2.8)

4 (2.1)

14 (3.7)

10 (5.9)

3 (6.1)

BMI (kg/m²)

27.3 (25.0–30.5)

27.2 (24.6–31.2)

27.5 (24.8–30.6)

27.4 (25.0–30.2)

26.5 (23.6–30.6)

0.49

Waist circumference (cm)

88.8 (80.0–97.3)

89.8 (81.8–97.0)

90.1 (81.5–98.7)

90.9 (81.7–99.1)

89.7 (79.3–97.8)

0.62

Insulin sensitivity (x 10⁻⁴ min⁻¹[μU’ml]⁻¹)

1.5 (0.8–2.8)

1.6 (0.9–2.9)

1.6 (0.9–3.0)

1.8 (0.9–2.9)

2.5 (1.1–3.8)

0.13

Family history of diabetes, n (%)

76 (35.5)

76 (39.0)

156 (41.4)

72 (42.4)

13 (26.5)

0.20

Total energy intake (kcal/day)

1736 (1321–2301)

1596 (1157–2110)

1945 (1366–2337)

1852 (1450–2471)

1902 (1334–2589)

0.0004

Total energy expended (kcal kg⁻¹ year ⁻¹)

13991 (12947–16047)

13815 (12869–15165)

14189 (12929–16059)

14124 (13085–15803)

14256 (12752–15441)

0.28

Whole grain consumption (servings/day)

0.7 (0.2–1.2)

0.6 (0.3–1.1)

0.6 (0.2–1.1)

0.7 (0.3–1.2)

0.5 (0.1–1.0)

0.52

% Energy from saturated fat

11.9 (9.5–14.1)

11.6 (9.0–13.9)

12.5 (10.3-14.6)

12.7 (11.0–14.8)

12.7 (10.8–14.6)

0.0003

% Energy from polyunsaturated fat

6.6 (5.4–8.1)

6.4 (5.2–7.8)

6.4 (5.3–7.7)

6.2 (5.4–7.7)

6.3 (5.3–7.6)

0.63

Regular soda consumption (servings/day)

0.03 (0.0–0.5)

0.03 (0.0–0.1)

0.03 (0.0–0.1)

0.03 (0.0–0.1)

0.07 (0.0–0.3)

0.0313

ALT (units/l)

17.0 (11.0–23.0)

16.0 (12.0–24.0)

16.0 (11.0–22.0)

17.0 (11.0–24.0)

15.0 (9.0–23.0)

0.40

AST (units/l)

21.0 (17.0–26.0)

21.0 (16.0–26.0)

21.0 (17.0–26.0)

21.0 (16.0-25.0)

19.0 (16.0–24.0)

0.56

Fetuin-A (μg/ml)^b

938.9 (741.5–1256.7)

992.6 (828.4–1196.5)

974.3 (835.8–1165.7)

986.8 (839.6–1260.7)

1125.8 (903.9–1273.6)

0.52

NAFLD liver fat score^c

−0.9 (−2.0, 0.8)

−1.1 (−2.1, 0.4)

−1.1 (−2.2, 0.3)

−1.0 (−2.2, 0.5)

−1.8 (−2.7, −0.1)

0.23