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Table 2 Potential clinical manifestations of WD

From: Immunoglobulin a nephropathy as the first clinical presentation of Wilson disease: a case report and literature review

Target organ

Clinical features

Liver

Abnormal liver enzymes, asymptomatic hepatomegaly, acute or chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, hepatic encephalopathy, and fulminant hepatitis [4]

Nervous system

Motor dysfunctions: dystonia, Parkinsonism, choreoathetosis, tremor, ataxia, dysarthria, oropharyngeal dysfunction; seizures [21]

 

Nonmotor symptoms: school failure, personality disorders, mood changes, psychosis, cognitive abnormalities, sleep disorders, and autonomic disturbances, impulsiveness, sexual exhibitionism, inappropriate behavior [21]

Ophthalmologic manifestations

Kayser–Fleischer ring; sunflower cataract [22]; slowing of saccades, impaired upgaze, and strabismus

Blood

Hemolytic anemia (Coombs-negative hemolytic anemia) [23]; thrombocytopenia; HELLP syndrome; leukopenia

Kidney

Glomerulonephritis; nephrotic syndrome; renal tubular function disorder (renal tubular acidosis, aminoaciduria) [24]; IgA nephropathy [12]; IgM nephropathy [8]; Fanconi syndrome [25]; nephrolithiasis [26]

Musculoskeletal and joint diseases

Osteoporosis; osseomuscular; arthritis or arthralgias [27]; muscle weakness [28]

Endocrine system

Male feminization; paramenia [29]; habitual abortion [30]; infertility, sexual retardation [31]; hyperprolactinemia; hypoparathyroidism; insulinoma [32]; hypokalemia

Cardiovascular system

Electrocardiographic abnormalities; cardiac interstitial fibrosis [33], myocarditis [33]

Others

Pancreatitis [34]; cholangitis [35]; hyperpigmentation [36]; acanthosis nigricans [37]