Table 1 Characteristics and dietary intakes among cases and controls
From: Spinach consumption and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease among adults: a case–control study
Cases (n = 225) | Controls (n = 450) | P value | |
|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 38.6 ± 8.7 | 37.8 ± 8.9 | 0.293 |
Male, n (%) | 125 (55.6) | 233 (51.8) | 0.354 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 30.5 ± 4.0 | 25.0 ± 3.0 | < 0.001 |
Smoking, n (%) | 16 (7.1) | 12 (2.7) | 0.006 |
Physical activity (MET/min/week) | 1119 ± 616 | 1590 ± 949 | < 0.001 |
SES, n(%) | 0.043 | ||
Low | 65 (28.9) | 158 (35.1) | |
Middle | 104 (46.2) | 206 (45.8) | |
High | 56 (24.9) | 86 (19.1) | |
Macro and micronutrients | |||
Energy intake (Kcal/day) | 2369 ± 621 | 2227 ± 645 | 0.006 |
Carbohydrate (% of energy) | 55.9 ± 7.4 | 55.9 ± 6.5 | 0.917 |
Protein (% of energy) | 13.2 ± 2.4 | 13.2 ± 2.2 | 0.941 |
Fat (% of energy) | 30.7 ± 7.4 | 30.8 ± 6.5 | 0.927 |
Fiber (g/1000 Kcal) | 16.7 ± 8.3 | 15.8 ± 6.4 | 0.154 |
Calcium (mg/1000Kcal) | 528 ± 163 | 533 ± 153 | 0.723 |
Sodium (mg/1000Kcal) | 1990 ± 1960 | 2040 ± 1385 | 0.736 |
Potassium (mg/1000Kcal) | 1546 ± 365 | 1596 ± 373 | 0.093 |
Food groups | |||
Whole grains (g/day) | 64.0 (30.7–115.3) | 53.8 (25.1–112.8) | 0.711 |
High fat dairy products (g/day) | 237 ± 153 | 118 ± 107 | < 0.001 |
Fruits (g/day) | 327 ± 227 | 318 ± 228 | 0.628 |
Vegetables (g/day) | 262 ± 138 | 302 ± 148 | 0.001 |
Nuts and legume (g/day) | 22.1 ± 21.1 | 21.2 ± 18.5 | 0.596 |
Red meat (g/day) | 18.1 ± 16.2 | 18.9 ± 17.4 | 0.577 |
Total spinach (g/day) | 1.7 (0.7–3.6) | 2.3 (1.0–5.6) | 0.001 |
Raw spinach (g/day) | 0.7 (0.2–1.8) | 1.0 (0.5–3.0) | 0.001 |
Boiled spinach (g/day) | 0.4 (0.1–1.5) | 0.6 (0.3–1.8) | 0.046 |
Raw spinach (serving/year) | 2.5 (1.2–7.6) | 9.1 (3.0–22.8) | < 0.001 |
Boiled spinach (serving/year) | 1.9 (0.6–6.3) | 12.0 (6.0–36.5) | 0.046 |